Abstract
Rising global municipal solid waste (MSW) generation poses severe environmental and resource challenges, necessitating sustainable management strategies beyond landfilling. This review critically synthesizes thermochemical waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies, including incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal carbonization, as viable pathways for converting heterogeneous MSW into energy (electricity, heat, syngas, bio-oil) and valuable materials (biochar, ash for construction). Drawing on recent literature, it highlights their superior greenhouse gas reductions, energy recovery efficiencies, and residue valorization potential compared to traditional disposal, while addressing persistent limitations such as feedstock variability, tar formation, high capital costs, and stringent emission controls. Advanced variants and integration with circular economy principles enhance feasibility, particularly in diverse regional contexts. Despite technical and economic barriers, thermochemical WtE offers a transformative approach to resource-efficient waste management, supporting zero-waste goals and renewable energy transitions when combined with optimized pre-treatment, policy incentives, and ongoing innovation in process efficiency and pollutant mitigation.