Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, robotics, automation, and remote sensing technologies are all contributing to digital transformation in forestry. Improving on low-accuracy Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) positioning affected by multipath error and interception under forest canopies is critical for integrating smart and digital technologies into equipment in forest operations. In an era where lidar-derived individual tree locations are now increasingly available in digital forest inventories, a possible alternative approach to positioning resources such as people or equipment accurately could be to match locally-measured tree positions and attributes in the forest with an existing global reference map based on prior remote sensing missions, effectively using the trees themselves as satellites to circumvent the need for GNSS-based positioning. We evaluated a lidar-based alternative to GNSS positioning using predicted tree positions from local terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) matched with a global stem map derived from prior airborne laser scanning (ALS), a methodology we refer to as TreePS. The horizontal error of the TreePS system was estimated using 154 permanent single-tree inventory plots on the University of Idaho Experimental Forest with two different workflows based on two common R packages (lidR v. 4.3.0, FORTLS v. 1.6.2) using either spatial coordinates or spatial plus stem DBH predicted using one or both segmentation routines and a custom matching algorithm. Mean TreePS error using lidR for below and above-canopy segmentation had mean error of 1.04 and 2.04 m with 93.5% and 91.6% of plots with viable match solutions on spatial and spatial plus DBH matching. The second workflow with both FORTLS (TLS point cloud) and lidR (ALS point cloud) had errors of 1.09 and 2.67 m but only 57.9% and 54.2% of plots with solutions using spatial and spatial plus DBH, respectively. There is room for improvement in the matching algorithm but the TreePS methodology and similar feature-matching solutions may be useful for below-canopy positioning of equipment, people or other resources under dense forests and other GNSS-degraded environments to help advance smart and digital forestry.