Abstract
Moisture availability is one of the most threatened and uncertain determinants of agricultural profitability and global food security. Irrigation is an adaptation to interannual in- consistencies in rainfall, exacerbated by increased drought frequency, and helps to improve and maintain crop yield potential (Brumbelow and Georgakakos, 2001). Globally, irrigation accounts for 40% of the global food supply from less than 20% of its area (FAO, 2002), and the U.S. is no exception, with 54% of the total value of crop sales originating from irrigated farms (<20% of the total number of farms) (USDA-ERS, 2025). Irrigated yields are substantially higher (up to 6 times) and more stable (40% lower variability) than rainfed yields (Kukal and Irmak, 2019, 2020) in the U.S. Due to these benefits among others, nationwide irrigated acreage has increased from <3 million acres (USDA-IWMS, 1890) in 10 to over 53 million acres in 2023 (USDA-IWMS, 2024). Excessive pumping from groundwater aquifers, existing regulatory frameworks, reduced streamflow due to accelerated snowmelt, water quality degradation, competition with urban water consumers, increased drought occurrence, environmental health concerns, and water needs for environmental flows have put immense pressure on the limited freshwater resources. This pressure has encouraged improvements in irrigation techniques, infrastructure, and management, all of which improve irrigation efficiency and net profits for the irrigator. Older, non-technological methods of water application in the U.S. have slowly been replaced with more modern pressurized systems (i.e., sprinkler systems), such as center pivot systems that are used on 55% of the U.S. total irrigated land. Center-pivot irrigation offers convenience, flexibility, performance, and low labor and maintenance requirements, all targeted to conserve water, energy, and time (Splinter, 1976). The adoption of these infrastructural and engineering advances has partially contributed to the reduction in average water use per irrigated acre in the nation. However, infrastructural advances alone cannot ameliorate water security challenges, especially while maintaining economic profitability for irrigators.