Abstract
The global push to advance smart and digital forestry relies on emerging technologies to support efficient, AI-assisted, and data-driven forest management, but many forest operations occur in remote forests where reliable internet connectivity is unavailable. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite constellations such as Starlink may provide reliable connectivity where cellular networks are unavailable. The performance of LEO-based solutions remains poorly understood under forest canopies, and empirical evaluations linking canopy characteristics to connectivity performance are largely lacking. In this study, the effect of forest vegetation on Starlink performance below the canopy was evaluated by placing a satellite receiver at thirty randomly selected permanent single tree inventory plots on the University of Idaho Experimental Forest and measuring connection success, connection time, and upload and download speeds along 50 m transects in all cardinal directions. LiDAR-derived stand density index (SDI), leaf area index (LAI), rumple index (RI), and vegetation cover (VC) were used to quantify canopy structure. Principal Component Analysis and survival analysis showed that higher values of PC1, primarily driven by SDI, LAI, and RI, reduced the probability of establishing a connection. Linear regression analysis indicated that higher SDI increased connection time, indicating that denser stands slowed or prevented connectivity. Linear mixed-effects models demonstrated that internet speed primarily declined with increasing distance, with download and upload rates dropping beyond 40 m from the router. LAI, RI, and VC did not influence connection time or speed, suggesting that overall stand density rather than leaf area per unit ground area has a greater impact on signal obstruction. Overall, dense forest structure and distance are the main constraints on LEO satellite connectivity and performance, and understanding these limitations supports the development and deployment of satellite-based networking to advance smart forestry operations. These results provide one of the first quantitative assessments of LEO satellite connectivity constraints in operational forest conditions, offering practical guidance for deploying satellite-based networks to support smart forestry applications in remote environments.